Россия и Арабский мир: к 200-летию профессора Санкт-Петербургского университета Шейха ат-Тантави (1810–1861)

212 lished in Western and Middle Eastern languages, wholly or partially devoted to the varied activities of the Muslim tujjār in the Ottoman provinces in Asia. These studies have focused on such topics as the activities and enter- prises of the Muslim big merchants, their relations with the authorities, their investments in social services, and their perceptions of the world of trade. The broad scope of themes in the study of the Muslim tujjār was made possi- ble, inter alia, by the use of a wide variety of new sources. Historians have employed five main categories of primary sources: (1) The private archives of tujjār families; (2) Documents in public archives (including records of shar‘ī courts) in Middle Eastern countries; (3) State archives of the European countries that had extensive trade relations with the Ottoman Empire, particu- larly Great Britain, France and Russia; (4) The archives of European trading houses and banks that were active in the region; and (5) Printed primary sources such as local newspapers, travelogues and memoirs. The picture emerging from this array of studies is that the Muslim tujjār played an important economic role in the long 19th century ― especially in its latter part ― in many cities and the rural hinterland. 1 They were involved in foreign trade, regional (intra-Ottoman), and local trade. There were cities in which they played a central role in various types of trade (for instance in Sivas, Uşak, Damascus, Hama, Mosul, Nablus and Jiddah); cities in which they were active side by side with Greek, Armenian, Christian Arab and Jew- ish merchants (for instance in Basra, Aleppo, Jaffa, Baghdad and Erzurum); and cities, including the three biggest Ottoman Mediterranean and Aegean “The Growing Economic Involvement of Palestine with the West, 1865-1914,” in David Kushner (ed.), Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period, Jerusalem and Lei- den: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi and E.J. Brill, 1986, pp. 193, 201, 205; Anders Bjørkelo, Prelude to the Mahdiyya. Peasants and Traders in the Shendi Region, 1821-1885, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 124-30; James A. Reilly, “Damascus Merchants and Trade in the Transition to Capitalism,” Canadian Journal of History 27 (1992): 21-25; Donald Quataert, Ottoman Manufacturing in the Age of the Industrial Revolution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 149-50; Beshara Doumani, Rediscovering Palestine: Merchants and Peasants in Jabal Nablus, 1700-1900, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995, pp. 61-81, 214-15; Hala Fattah, The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf, 1745-1900, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1997, pp. 77-83; Eugene L. Rogan, Frontiers of the State in the Late Otto- man Empire: Transjordan, 1850-1921, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 95-120; Sarah D. Shields, Mosul before Iraq: Like Bees Making Five- Sided Cells, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2000, pp. 93-122. 1 Gad G. Gilbar, “The Muslim Big Merchant-Entrepreneurs of the Middle East, 1860-1914,” Die Welt des Islams, 43 (2003), pp. 3-28.